ON COMMING-TO-BE AND HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

 

Speech made at the anniversary session of the General Assembly of the Russian Academy of Sciences
June 3, 1999

 

 

Dear guests, colleagues, friends!

With all may heart, I would like to congratulate you on our common great holiday.

As the date of foundation of the Russian Academy of Sciences, February 8 (new styli) of 1724 is adopted. The Senate then approved the project of Peter the Great to establish an Academy of Sciences and Arts in St. Petersburg. By founding the Academy, Peter the Great understood that “it was impossible for that matter to follow a pattern adopted in other states”, and then, “such a construction is to be made that not only the state’s glory because of sciences multiplication may spread, but also benefit for the people by means of education and using sciences may be gained in future”. And these goals set by Peter the Great were achieved. In the course of all its 275-year history, the scientists of the Academy served the Fatherland and the people.

The Academy was, and remains, the highest scientific institution of the country, a world center for research in the field of mathematics, the natural and technical sciences, the humanities and social sciences.

At hard turning points of life our people has always turned to the living roots of its history, and gained its force from them. That is why today we turn over certain pages of the history of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

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The creation of the Academy of Sciences is directly connected with Peter the Great’s reformer activities aimed at strengthening the state, its economic and political independence. Peter the Great understood the importance of scientific thought, education and culture for the prosperity of the country. And he started acting “from above”.

Under his project, the Academy was substantially different from all related foreign organizations. It was a state institution; while on a payroll, its members had to provide for the scientific and technical services of thee state. The Academy combined the functions of scientific research and training, having its own university and a high school.

On December 27, 1725, the Academy celebrated its creation with a large public meeting. This was a solemn act of appearance of a new attribute of Russian state life.

Academic Conference has become a body of collective discussion and estimation of research results. The scientists were not tied up by any dominating dogma, were free in their scientific research, and took an active part in the scientific opposition between the Cartesians and Newtonians. Possibilities to publish scientific works were practically unlimited.

Physician Lavrentii Blumentrost was appointed first President of the Academy. Taking care of bringing the Academy’s activities to the world level, Peter the Great invited leading foreign scientists. Among the first were mathematicians Nikolas and Daniil Bornoulli, Christian Goldbach, physicist Georg Bulfinger, astronomer and geographer J.Delille, historian G.F.Miller. In 1727, Leonard Eiler joined the Academy.

In the first three decades, the Academy’s research work was done in the three directions (of “classes”): mathematical, physical (natural sciences) and the humanities. Actually, the Academy at once joined in multiplying the scientific and cultural riches of the country. It got a splendid collection of the Cabinet of Curiosities. An anatomical theater, a department of geography, and astronomical observatory, a physical cabinet, and a mineralogical cabinet were set up. The Academy had a botanical garden and instrumental shops. Here, prominent botanists I.G.Gmelin and I.G.Kelreiter, the founder of embrylolgy K.F.Volf, the famous naturalist and traveler P.S.Pallas were working. Work on electricity and magnetism theory was done by G.V.Rikgman and F.U.Eoubys. Thanks to the academic scientists’ research, foundations for development of mining, metallurgy, and other branches of Russian industry were laid. Work on geodesy and cartography was going on. In 1745, the first general map of the country, the Atlas of Russia, was created.

From the start, the activities of the Academy let it take an honorable place among the greatest scientific institutions of Europe. This was prompted by the fame of such giants as L. Eiler and M.Lomonosov.

The fruitful, really titanic scientific activities of the great scientist Leonard Eiler started in St.Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The mathematical research of L.Eiler heralded the most important stage in the development of calculus after Newton and Leibliz. L.Eiler obtained deep results in number theory, set foundations for complex analysis, variational calculus, analytical mechanics, and, together with Daniil Bernoulli, hydrodynamics. His mathematical research was closely related to practical problems in mechanics, ballistics, cartography, shipbuilding, and navigation. L.Eiler brought up first Russian mathematicians later becoming Academy members.

The scientific, educational and organizing activities of the great scientist and a person of encyclopedic learning. Mikhail Lomonosov made as much as a whole era in the Academy’s history. He enriched the Academy with fundamental discoveries in chemistry, physics, astronomy, geology, geography, and made a large contribution to the development of history, linguistics and poetry. He set up Russia’s first chemical laboratory in 1748. In 1755, he took an active part in founding Moscow University now rightfully bearing his name.

On the Academy’s initiative and with its participation, complex expedition were carried out, making an enormous contribution to the discovery of Russia’s natural resources, and ethnographic research of the country’s territories from the White to the Caspian Seas, from the western regions to Kamchatka. The Great Northern Expedition of 1733-1742 and the academic expeditions of 1760-1770, the fundamental works of their participants I.G.Gmelin, S.G.Gelin, A.P.Gorlanov Sea, S.P.Kracheninnikov, S.P.Pallas and other played an outstanding role in the development of geography, biology, ethnography, history and culture of the peoples of Russia, and were highly praised in Europe, discovering territories little known to European researchers. They solved the problem of a bay between Asia and America, and the northeastern borders of Russia. The regions’ maps were made, fauna and flora studied, mineral resources discovered, history, ethnography, economic activities of the people lining there descried, and their languages studied. G.V.Steller, who sailed together with V.Bering, started pioneer studies of the nature and everyday life of the peoples of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.

The academy started publishing Russian history sources, and participants in its expeditions collected artifacts of the numerous peoples living in the suburbs of the Empire. The works of V.N.Tatishchev, M.V.Lomonosov, G.F.Miller, M.M.Scervatov, I.N.Boltin, publishing The Oldest Russian Bibliotheca, setting up departments of archives and manuscripts in museums crowned the making of history as a science in Russia. In the early forties, several volumes of the catalog of collections of the Cabinet of Curiosities were Published. The Academy becomes a keeper of the monuments of home and world science. In 1773, 18 volumes of Kepler’s manuscripts were acquired, even now a pride of the academic archives and used by the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in publishing his complete works. A very rich collection of scientific correspondence of the 18th century was being amassed, the most valuable monument not only of Russian but also of Pan-European culture. The Academy was constantly in touch with European scientific journals publishing abstracts of its publications.

Since 1728, a journal in Latin, or, more precisely, an annual collection of scientific papers. Commentarii Peterburgskoi akademii nauk (Commentaries of St.Petersburg Academy of Sciences) was launched, which enjoyed wide popularity with the scientific community as one of the leading scientific journals in Europe.

The Academy set up its own printing press, quickly winning an excellent reputation. The press was assigned to publish all kinds (except for ecclesiastical) of the literature in the country. This marked immediately the leading role of the Academy in the general development of Russian culture.

As early as 1736, the well-known French physicist D. de Merand wrote that “St.Petersburg Academy since its inception rose to an outstanding scientific height, which the Paris and London Academies reached only after 60 years of hard work”.

In 1748, first Russian President of the Academy (Count K.G.Razumovsky) was appointed. Native scientists started being elected to the Academy. The first Russian academicans became S.P. Krasheninnikov, author of the first natural science book Description of the Land of Kamchatka written in Russian, M.V.Lomonosov, poet V.k.Tredyakovsky, and later astronomers N.I.Popov, S.Ya.Rumovsky, P.B.Inokhodtsev, naturalists I.I.Lepekhin, N.Ya.Ozeretskovsky, V.F.Zuev, and others.

The Academy publications actively contributed to the spreading of scientific knowledge. In Notes to the Records, papers on natural phenomena and minerals, machines and devices, travels, remote lands and peoples, diseases and their treatment, poetic and dramatic arts, opera and many other things appeared. Calendars published by the Academy in two languages reached a wide audience. They regularly published papers on historical and natural sciences. And though by the end of the century, private book publishing and journalism gained ground, it is the academic publications that maintained the leadership in the propaganda of science (we are still leaders in the field). The variety of themes covered by the Russian language journal Monthly Compositions for Use and Entertainment (1755-1764) was ample. Later, Academic News appeared, as well as other popular publications authored by academicians or placing translations o foreign popular science literature.

A bright spot in the cultural life of St.Petersburg was public lectures given in 1785-1802 for all those interested in science. Almost all Russian academicians and adjuncts used to give lectures on mathematics, physics, mineralogy and natural history. The readings, which were held in Russian, gathered large audiences.

University was an inseparable part of the Academy. In had to train scientific cadres University sis work quite regularly in the fifties and early sixties when under and active care of M.V.Lomonosov. After his death, Academic University was on the decline, and dissolved in 1767. Its role in training firs native academicians was very important. The Academy assisted in setting up Moscow University in 1755, completed the education of geodesists from the Naval Academy in its Observatory, took part in the affairs of the Cadet Corps, taught physiology to physicians at the Army ad Naval hospitals. In a word, the Academy’s role in uplifting the educational level of the first native specialists was undoubtedly great.

The Academy played an enormous role in drawing up and executing the school reform of the eighties and nineties o the 18th century. The Academy members worked out its main provisions, took part in training first professional teachers. Wrote and published about 30 textbooks and manuals. As defined by S.I.Vavilov, “in the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Russian Academy was a synonym for Russian science”.

In the 18th century, the titles of honorary members and corresponding members of the Academy were granted tomore than 160 foreign scientists (F.Voltaire, D.Diderot, J.D’Alembert, C.Linnaeus, B.Franklin, and others). In turn, L.Eiler, M.V.Lomonosov, I.I.Lepekhin, S.Ya.Rumovsky, and P.S.Pallas became honorary members of foreign academies.

In 1783, in pfrallel with the St.Petersburg Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy was founded, whose main goal was to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. Its members were the famous Russian writers and poets D.I.Fonvizin, G.R.Derzhavin, and, since 1833, the genius of Russian poetry A.S.Pushkin, as well as scientists S.K.Kotelnokov, A.P.Protasov, S.Ya.Rumovsky, and others. One of the initiators of inception and the first chairperson of this Academy was Countess Ye.R.Dachkova. In 1841, the Russian Academy was dissolved, and some of its members joined the Academy of Sciences’ Department of the Russian Language and Literature.

Completing the survey of the first 75 years of the work of the Academy and passing on to the next historic stage of its life, I cannot help quoting the Academy’s Statute of 1803, approved by Alexander I and, together with that of 1836, becoming a base for the academic life in the next hundred odd years. It vividly depicts the history of the Academy’s creation, the role assigned, and the place in the life of the Russian state at the time:

“All the enlightened persons at various times felt how much the joint effort of many scientists inspired by the same striving for perfecting sciences adds to the success of the latter. Founded in their bosom and under the patronage of their Sovereigns, both the Academies and the scientific societies, directing the activities of their members to a unique goal, undertook and made important deeds, and enriched sciences with discoveries, which without that happy combination of striving and knowledge, might perish irreparable for the human race.

“Thus, Russia,, too, shares with them the glory of spreading the sciences’ limits. During his travels, God bless his memory, sovereign Peter the Great was an obvious witness to the use of these educational establishments, and conceiving desire to erect a temple of sciences, whose been factory affect would also spread onto the remote countries of the Empire, in his new capital, intended to bound and Academy, no sooner had drawn up its Statute than death suddenly cut his glorious life. Empress Catherine I completed what was started by her consort; she arranged for this Academy of Sciences, which, under the patronage of successors to the Russian throne and having been granted regulations by, God bless her memory, Empress Elisabeth, spreading the sphere of its, activities, repeatedly proved, especially during the glorious reign of Empress Catherine II, the use which similar institutions sensible governed and strongly supported by the government can bring to the state, which is confirmed by many deeds undertaken by her; above all, glorious and successfully completed journeys for studying and describing the natural works of Russia, and the expedition for astronomical observations.

“Having made sure that spreading of sciences and perfecting useful knowledge is most beneficial for the well-being of peoples, we turned our special attention to the Academy of Sciences, and, having found that its previous regulations did not correspond to the present time, that the amount appointed to it was quite insufficient, and that various obstacles proceeding from this had subsequently weakened its activities, we judged it right to publish new regulations for it, and a new list corresponding to the present circumstances and cooperative with the goal designed to it…

“The primary objective of the Academy comes from the very goal of its establishment common with that of all the Academies and scientific communities: to extend the range of human knowledge, perfect the sciences, enrich them with new discoveries, promote education, as much as possible, to direct knowledge to common benefit, adapting theories and useful consequences of the experiments and observations to practical use; this is, in short, a book of the Academy’s duties.

“To the duties common with other Academies, the duty to address its work directly to the use of Russia, promoting knowledge of natural works of the Empire, discovering means of multiplying such that make up the subject of popular industry and trade, of improving the state of factories, manufactures, trades and arts – these sources of the wealth and power of states.”

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In the twenties of the 19th century, a special building was constructed for the Academy in St.Petersburg. In the thirties, the Botanical, Zoological, Ethnographic, Mineralogical, Asian, Egyptian, and Numismatic Museums were set up, using the exhibits of the Cabinet of Curiosities. Some have subsequently become corresponding departments of the Hermitage and other world-famous museums. On January 1, 1839, the Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory was unveiled, which at once occupied a leading place in the world astronomical science. Its first director was V.Ya.Struve, and the second his son O.V.Struve.

In 1804, the academy of Sciences started issuing a new publication, Technological Journal, or a Collection of Works and News Related to Technology, and Applications of Discoveries Made in Science. The journal reflected the striving to strengthen the ties of science with practice. The periodic scientific publications Theoretical Studies, Works of the Academy of Sciences were published in Russian. The number of its corresponding members and hnonrary members was growing, including N.I.Gnedich, V.M.Golovnin, N.I.Grech, V.I.Dal, N.M.Karamzin, K.Kh.F.Ledebur, N.I.Pirogov, N.F.Polevoi, O.I.Senkovsky, Kh.Kh.Steven,, A.S.Shishkov, and many other men of culture, famous travelers and naturalists. The fact, that among its foreign members we see the names of brilliant writers and scientists of the 19th century such as A.-M.Ampere, J.L.Gay-Lussac, T.H.Huxley, W.Herschel, J.W.Goethe, A. von Humboldt, Ch.R.Darwin, Ch.Layel, T.R.Malthus, O.L.Cauchy and J.Fourier, proves a high authority of the Academy.

The early 19th century became a new bright stage in the history of Russian geographical studies. In 1803-1806, I.F.Kruzenshtern and Yu.f.Lisyansky made the first round-the-world trip, in which Academy embers W.`Tilesius bor Tilenau and G.I.Langsdorf took part. In the first half of the 19th century, the Russian government organized about 50 major sea trips, in which, as a rule, the Academy’s naturalists took part, An outstanding event in the development of geographical studies became the discovery of Antarctica by the expedition of F.F.Bellinsgausen and M.P.Lazarev in 1820. The expeditions brought glory to Russia, and turned St.Petersburg into a center of world geography. The value of zoological collections and botanical herbaria of those years increased hundredfold today. It is only from them that we can learn of some species disappeared in the last two centuries.

Problems of calculus, mathematical physics and mechanics were given development in the studies of the outstanding mathematicians M.V.Ostrogradsky and V.Ya.Bunyakovsky. To demonstrate successes of university science, one can take the discovery of non-Euclidean geometry by the great Russian mathematician N.I.Lobachevsky, as an example, the theory was ahead of its time.

Among the greatest mathematicians of the 19th century is Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev. He created new directions in calculus, function theory, probability theory and number theory, solved most difficult problems of long standing, not yielding to the efforts of his predecessors. P.L.Chebyshev’s greatest achievement is the creation of the famous St.Petersburg school of mathematicians. A.N.Korkin, Ye.I.Zolotarev, A.A.Markov, A.M.Lyapunov and V.A.steklov make up a far from complete list o brilliant representatives of his school. The famous disciple of P.L.Chebyshev founder of mathematical theory o stability, A.M.Lyapunov wrote:

“P.L.Cheyshev and his followers constantly remain of the real ground, being guided by the view that only such studies are valuable that are caused by applications (scientific of practical), and only such theories are really useful that follow from considering particular cases. A detailed study of the problems, particulary important from the standpoint of applications, and at the same time, presenting particular theoretical difficulties, which should be overcome by the invention of new methods and retracing one’s steps to the principles of science, and then generalization of a more or less general theory were the directions of the majority of works of P.L.Chebyshev and the scientists sharing his views”. This quotation is very characteristic of methodological views of the St. Petersburg mathematical school.

Since that time and until now, Russia has remained one of the world leaders in mathematics.

Of greatest importance for the development of fundamental problems in aerodynamics were the works of N.Ye.Zhukovsky and S.A.Chaplygin; in astronomy, of V.Ya.Struve, F.A.Bredikhin and A.A.Boloplsky. The following discoveries made history: of the electric arc. By V.V.Petrov; the studies of E.Kh.Lenz, who formulated the law of the thermal effect of the current, and also a fundamental rule determining the direction of induced currents; B.S.Yakobi invented electroplating and the ships’ electric motor. A.G.Stoletov and P.N.Lebedev performed a fundamental study on electromagnetic processes. An outstanding achievement was invention of radio by A.S.Popov in 1895.

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the flourishing of chemistry in Russia. The contributions by D.I.Mendeleev, creator of the periodic table of the chemical elements, N.N.Zinin, founder of a school o organic chemists, and A.M.Butlerov, creator of the theory of chemical construction, are invaluable.

Biological sciences in the Academy of the 19th century were represented by K.M.Baire, founder of the comparative embryology of animals, A.O.Kovalevsky, founder of evolutional embryology, A.S.Famintrsyn, creator of evolutional physiology of plants and author of the symbiogenesis hypothesis. On the verge of the 20th century Russia gave the world such names as D.I.Ivanovsky, discoverer of viruses, I.I.Mechnikov, one of the first Nobel laureates, who discovered cell mechanisms of immunity, I.P.Pavlov, a Noble laureate, who discovered conditioned reflexes base o consciousness, and whose 150th anniversary we mark this year.

V.M.Severgin was the first of work out systematization of minerals, created a fundamental work on the topomineralogy of Russia. The first geological map of the European part of the country was made by G.G.Gelemersen. Ye.S.Fyodorov laid foundations for structural crystallography, a systematic geological mapping of Russia was performed under the leadership of A.P.Karpinsky. B.B.Golitsyn created foundations of seismometry.

The works of genius by V.I.Vernadsky laid foundations for new sciences: geochemistry, and then radiochemistry and radiogeology. His teaching o biosphere and noosphere plays an outstanding role in solving ecological problems. Establishing new system of the Paleozoic, called the Perm system, became the greatest discovery related to the Earth’s history. It was then that considerable resources of platinum in the Urals, uranium in Fergana, oil in the Baku region, and gold and coals in Siberia were discovered.

One of the Academy of Sciences most important goals was perfecting the Russian language. Together with prominent linguists, the brilliant Russian writers P.A.Vyazemsky, V.A.Zhukovsky, I.A.Krylov, I.A.Goncharov, F.M.Dostoevsky, A.N.Mainkov, I.S.Turgenev, A.N.Ostrovsky, A.K.Tolstoy, F.I.Tyutchev, A.A.Fet, A.S.Khomyakov and others joined the Department of the Russian Language and Literature.

Acad. Ya.K.Grot set norms of Russian orthography, maintained until the reform of 1918, and compiled a dictionary, which has not lost its importance even now. Acad. A.Kh.Vostokov, researcher of monuments of Old Slavonic literature, published Ostromirovo Gospel in 1843. In the 19th century, historians drew society’s attention to the riches of native history. In 1818, publication of The History of the Russian State by N.M.Karamzin started. N.M.kramzin was elected Honorary Member of the Academy that same year. As A.S.Pushkin put it figuratively, “the history of Russia was discovered by Columbus”. Its tortuous history Russia learned also thanksto the efforts of academic historians S.M.Solovyev, V.O.Klyuchevsky, T.N.Granovsky, nd others.

In the first quarter of the 19th century, statesman N.P.Rumyantsev succeeded in uniting scientists K.F.Kalaidovich, I.I.Grigorovich, A.Kh.Vostokov, P.M.Stroev and others, who made it their vocation to collect, study, and publish documents of Russian history. An archeographic expedition was organized in 1828-1834. The Lavrentyevskaya, Troitskaya and Ipatyevskaya Chronicles, and the Code of Laws of 1497 became accessible to general public. N.P.Rumyantsev amassed a collection of manuscrips and books making up a base for the Rumyantsev museum. Fundamental studies of philologists I.I.Sreznevsky, V.I.Dal and A.A.Shakhmatov wre made widely known. The works of V.R.Rozen, V.V.Radlov, U.U.Bartold, F.I.Shcherbaatsky, S.F.Oldenburg and others laid foundations for the now world-known schools of oriental studies.

The high scientific and social status of Academy members was to a considerable degree also due to the fact that many of them were professors at higher educational establishments. It was the Academy that used to award the most prestigious prizes in the field of science.

The Demidov, Uvarov and Upshkin Award funds were active. The F.F.Brandt, V/Ya.Bunyakovsky, K.M.Baire, G.P.Gelmersen, Metropolitan Macarius and Count D.A.Tolstoy Awards were instituted. In 1865, the 100th anniversary of the death of M.V.Lomonosov was marked by a new annual M.V.Lomonosov Award. By the way, the Academy member Metropolitan Macarius Award was reinstituted by the Moscow Patriarch, Government of Moscow and our Academy three years ago.

In December 1899, when the 100th anniversary of the birth of A.S.Pushkin was marked, a Section of Belles Lettres was set up under the Department of the Russian Language and Literature, with the goal of compiling a Dictionary of the Russian Language and publishing an annotated edition of the works of Russian writers.

The Section of Belles Lettres also united Honorary Academicians among writers, artists and literary critics. During the first elections in Jonuary 1900, the first generally recognized “masters of thought” of Russia L.N.Tolstoy, A.F.Koni, A.M.Zhemchuzhnikov, V.G.Korolenko, A.P.Chekhov, V.S.Slolvyev and V.V.Stasov were elected. In the following years, K.S.Alekseev (Stanislavsky), I.A.Bunin, A.N.Veselovsky and lethers became Honorary Members. And though sometimes stormy disputes and even scandals accompanied the elections, as in electing A.M.Gorky, men of literature and arts highly evaluated their election as Honorary Members of the Academy, and regarded the fact as not only a manifestation of the Academy’s interest in the country’s culture, but also as an act of recognition by the whole of Russia.

In 1889, the Academy was headed by a highly-educated member of the Emperor’s family, a well-known poet Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich Romanv. He led the Academy without losses through the hard times of the early 20th century.

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1917, a year of great upheavals came. The Russian Empire collapsed. Most scientists did not accept the October Revolution On November 21, 1917, the General Assembly of the academy addressed the scientists of the country with a message expressing their negative attitude toward the revolution. Meanwhile, however, the Academy did not reject professional cooperation with the new power. In December 1917, S.F.Oldenburg noted that “Russia was on the verge of ruin”, and stressed at an annual meeting that “men of science cannot help being fully aware that without their work public education and culture are unthinkable, as any worthy human existence without the latter”.

A new, almost 70-year, period of unprecedented development of science and education in the country began. But a period dramatic, maiming the fates of many thousands of scientists, a period of inadmissible intrusions of power and ideology in science. It is just in this period that attempts to dissolve the Academy were made.

Since February 1918, at a decision of the General Assembly, the Emperor’s St.Petersburg Academy changed its name for the Russian Academy of Sciences. For the first time, the principle of elected leadership was introduced. The outstanding geologist A.P.Karpinsky was elected President.

The Academy actively joined in the resolution of socio-economic and cultural problems of the country. A Commission on the Study of natural Productive Forces and Natural Resources set up under the aegis of the Academy in 1915 on the initiative of V.I.Vernadsky was involved in the process. Research into the Kursk magnetic anomaly and the mineral resources of the Kola Peninsula was launched.

Under the leadership of G.M.Krzhizhanovsky, subsequently and Academician and Academy’s Vice-President, a State Plan for the country’s Electrification (GOELRO) was worked out, for many years becoming an extensive program for construction of hydroelectric power stations and high-voltage lines, and serving as a basis for industrialization of the entire country.

Modeled on the RAS, the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine was set up in 1918, with V.I.Vernadsky as President, and the Academy of Sciences of Belorussia in 1929.

From 1918, within the Academy system, research institutes were set up; in particular, the Engineering Physics Institute headed by A.F.Loffe, Institute of Physics and Mathematics headed by V.A.Steklov. The number of scientific workers of the Academy increased fourfold, as compared with 1917. The government’s decision of 1925 to proclaim the Academy the “highest all-Union scientific institution” become a recognition of the Academy’s role in the life of society. It was named the USSR Academy of Sciences. Scientists working outside of the Academy in higher educational establishments, branch institutes and other organizations started being elected to the Academy, which enabled to unite most outstanding men of science, without bureaucratic obstacles.

With the goal of improving the Academy’s interaction with the central state institutions, at a decision of the government of 1934, the Academy’s Presidium and a number of academic scientific institutions were transferred from Leningrad to Moscow. In 1935, a Department of Technical Sciences was set up. In 1938, the Academy already had 8 departments: Physics and Mathematics, Technical, chemical, Biological, Geological and Geographical sciences, Economics and Law, History and Philosophy, Literature and Language. In the national republics and major regions of the Russian Federation the Academy started setting up its branches and bases subsequently turned into the Academies of Sciences of the union republics, scientific centers, and regional divisions.

Dear colleagues, taking into account the shortage of time, le me further on, with the exception of but a few, not to name the members and workers of the Academy, now living. You will know them easily from the context. Otherwise, I would have to name most on those present.

In 1957, a Siberian Branch was set up and, later on, specialized scientific centers in Pushchino, Troitsk and Chernogolovka. In the late sixties, the Ural and Far-Eastern Branches were transformed into scientific centers, and then, in the eighties, into regional divisions. An outstanding role in the organization of regional divisions, branches, scientific centers was played by V.L.Komarov (subsequently, President of the Academy of Sciences), M.A.Lavrentyev, S.L.Sobolev, A.A.Troimuk, S.A.Khristianovich, S.V.Vonsovsky, N.N.Krasovsky and our other scientists. First Chairman of the Siberian Branch M.A.Lavrentyev has actually created a system for managing science in the regions, which was subsequently developed by G.O.Mrchuk and V.A.Koptyug, and used in the Ural and Far East. In the early sixties, the creation of the Academy of Sciences in all the union republics was completed. The academy of Sciences was assigned coordination of the activities of the republican Academies.

As the Academy grows, its contribution to world science grows too, as well as to the solution of problems facing the country. I will mention just a few of the outstanding achievements.

A major contribution to the development of modern mathematics and its applications was made. I.M.Vinogradov and his disciples obtained outstanding results in the theory of numbers. Most difficult problems were solved. Fundamental results in constructive function theory. Differential equations and probability theory were obtained by S.N.Bernshtein. The remarkable results of N.N.Luzin laid foundations for a further development of the theory of functions of a real variable in this country. In the twenties, N.N.Luzin set up the well-known Moscow school of function theory, where many outstanding mathematicians, organizers and leaders of native scientific schools of various branches of mathematics had grown. The remarkably diverse works of A.N.Kolmogorov had an enormous impact on the development of modern mathematics. In his work on function theory and functional analysis, classical mechanics, information theory, and, first of all, probability theory, mathematical statistics and turbulence theory, fundamental problems were solved, basic results obtained and new problems posed, bringing to life a great many of new research works. L.S.Pontryagin and his school obtained outstanding results in the fields of algebraic topology and theory of optimal control. Let me mention the famous Pontryagin principle. The theory of differential equations, methods of mathematical physics and functional analysis were developed by the works of I.G.Petrovsky, S.L.Sobolev, A.N.Tihonov and their disciples. In the mathematical works of M.V.Keldysh and M.A.Lavrentyev, outstanding results in the field of complex analysis, potential theory, functional analysis and approximation theory were obtained. Most difficult problems of mathematical logic, algebra, geometry ad topology were studied in the fundamental works of P.S.Novikov, A.I.Maltsev, P.S.Aleksandrov and many other prominent mathematicians. Major results were obtained in the field of calculus and mathematical modeling by A.N.Tikhonov, A.A.Dorodnitsyn, and others. Effective numerical methods for solution of problems in mechanics, physics, geophysics and technology, enabling to solve many difficult applied problems, were worked out. The works of L.V.Kantotovich on mathematical economics were awarded a Nobel prize. Under the leadership of S.A.Lebedev, studies leading to creation of first domestic fast-operating computers, uncluding the BESM-1 (1952), at the time the most efficient computer in Europe, were launched. I will specially note the basic contribution to mathematics, mechanics and theoretical physics, made by N.N.Bogolyubov, who for more than 25 years headed the Mathematics Department of our Academy.

The most important results were obtained in the field of mechanics. The theory o nonlinear oscillations is due to N.M.Krylov, N.N.Bogolyubov, L.I.Mandelshtam, A.A.Andronov, and others. A major contribution to the development of aerodynamics was made by M.V.Keldysh, V.V.Struminsky, A.A.Dorodnitsyn; elasticity theory, by N.I.Muskhelishvili; filtration theory, by P.Ya.Kochina, whose centenary was marked in May this year (I think we now have a good occasion to pass Pelageya Yakovlevna our best wishes with our applause); the mechanics of machines and mechanisms, by A.A.Blagonravov and I.I.Artobolevsky. The theory of small-scale turbulence structure was created in the works of A.N.Kolmogorov and A.M.Obukhof. Major achievements were obtained in the mechanics of solids, liquids and gases, mechanics of porous media, mechanics of navigational systems, motion stability theory, control theory and their applications.

The Academy’s achievements in the field of astronomy and astrophysics, including the studies of the distribution of diffused matter in world space, received a wide recognition.

Astronomers’ observational base was extended substantially. The world’s biggest Crimean and Special astronomical observatories were constructed. The latter possesses one of the world’s largest optical and radio telescopes. Outstanding results in the study of evolution of the Galaxy were obtained by V.A.Ambartsumyan, solar physics by A.B.Severny, and relativist astrophysics by Ya.B.Zeldovich. Important results were obtained in radioastronomical observations. Planets radiolocation, and X-ray astronomy.

It is difficult to overestimate the contribution to the development of physical sciences by the world-famous school of physics, headed by A.F.Ioffe and Leningrad Physical Engineering Institute, engendering a number of new institutes and scientific trends.

Physics in the Academy has always been on a high level. Here is a far from complete list of outstanding achievements in the field. D.V.Skobeltsyn discovered showers in cosmic rays, G.N.Flerov and K.A.Petrzhak spontaneous nuclear division. V.I.Veksler laid foundation for the principles of operation of high-energy particle accelerators, G.I.Budker was first to propose and apply his colliding beams method, which became basic in studies on high-energy physics. At the Serpukhov accelerator, new elementary particles and important laws in the physics of elementary particles were discovered. At underground observatories, neutrino physics and astrophysics were developed. Studies on superhigh-energy particles coming from outer space were performed. Relativist nuclear physics develops successfully, and synthesis of the heaviest trans-Uranium elements is carried out. The works of physical theorists deepened the understanding of nuclear structure and elementary particles, made a large contribution of the creation of the theory of strong interactions, i.e. quantum chromodynamics. Synchrotron radiation was predicted.

Fundamental results in the theory of high-temperature plasma and problems of controlled thermonuclear synthesis were obtained. I.E.Tamm and A.D.Sakharov offered a basic idea of holding plasma in a magnetic field; in particular, in a Tokamak-type plants and in the development of the problem of inertial thermonuclear synthesis.

Fundamental research of luminescence was performed by S.I.Vavilov and his disciples. P.A.Cherenkov discovered, and I.E.Tamm and I.M.Frank supplied a theoretical explanation to the phenomenon of light radiation by a charged particle moving with a speed exceeding the phase speed of light in a medium. G.S.Landsberg and L.I.Mandelshtam discovered combination diffusion of light in crystals. N.G.Basov and A.M.Prokhorov laid foundations for quantum electronics, created a number of types of lasers, and determined areas of application of laser technology.

Important results were obtained in nonlinear optics, nonlinear laser spectroscopy. Foundations for color holography were laid. Wide-scale research into spreading radio waves of different bandwidths was performed. Major results were obtained in statistical radiophysics and in the theory of potential noisestability of radio communications. Science owes E.K.Zavoisky his discovery of electronic paramagnetic resonance, and P.L.Kapitsa the discovery of liquid helium super-fluidity. Theoretical explanation of this phenomenon and development of the theory of superconductivity is due to L.D.Landau, N.N.Bogolyubor, and others.

The contribution to solid-state physics is very important, including the development of the quantum theory of the condensed state of matter, and of semiconductor physics. Principles of creation of power semiconductors of current transformers, semiconductor heterostructures and lasers on their basis, and principles of acoustoelectronics were worked out. Exitons in semiconductors were discovered and studied. The works of L.F.Vereshchagin on the technology of producing artificial diamonds led to the creation of an industry of synthetic supersolid materials.

Among the Nobel laureates are N.N.Sepmyonov (1956), P.A.Cherenkov, I.M.Frank, and I.E.Tamm (1958), L.D.Landau (1962), N.G.Basov and A.M.Prokhorov (1964), and P.L.Kapitsa (1978).

Greatest achievements in chemical sciences are obtained by the schools of L.A.Chugaev, I.I.Chernyaev, A.A.Grivberg on the chemistry of complex compounds; N.D.Zelinsky, S.S.Namyotkin, on the chemistry of hydrocarbons and petrochemistry; N.S.Kurnakov in the field of physicochemical analysis. Foundations of modern organic synthesis were laid by the works of A.E.Favorsky, I.N.Nazarov and N.N.Vorozhtsov. A major contribution to the development of catalysis theory was made by A.A.Balandin and G.K.Boreskov, electrochemisty by A.N.Frumkin, and physicochemical mechanics by P.A.Rebinder. Nobel laureate N.N.Semyonov experimentally discovered and created a theory of branched chain reactions. Chemical kinetics, combustion and detonation theory were given a brilliant development in the works of Ya.B.Zeldovich, V.N.Kondratyev and N.M.Emanuel. New physical methods for stimulating chemical transformations by radiation, laser radiation and shock waves were developed. A new direction in chemistry, the chemistry of element-organic compounds, which A.N.Nesmeyanov called a “third continent of Chemistry”, was created by A.N.Nesmeyanov, G.A.Razuvaev, I.L.Knunyants, M.I.Kavachnik, and father and son Arbuzovs.

Many other directions in modern chemistry and its applications developed considerably. Chemical scientists made an invaluable contribution to the development of home in the 20th century. S.V.Levedev created the world’s first technology for producing synthetic rubber. The works of V.A.Kargin, S.S.Medvedev, N.S.Enikolopov, V.N. Tsvetkov on the chemistry and physics of polymers enabled to start production of synthetic materials. The works of I.P.Bardin and A.A.Baikov found wide application in metallurgy. An outstanding role in the development of electrical welding and special electrometallurgy belonged to the studies of B.E.Paton and his colleagues.

Among the achievements determining progress in biology, one cannot help marking the discovery by N.I.Vavilov of the law of homologous series in hereditary changes, the works of N.K.Koltsov on the gene structure, the pioneer studies of A.N.Belozersky on nucleic acids, gene systematization and the original theory of the origins of life by F.I.Oparin.

The works of I.P.Pavlov and his school led to major developments in the physiology of the central nervous system. P.K.Anokhin, M.N.Livanov had major successes in the study of the brain function; L.A.Orbeli, Kh.S.Koshtoyants and E.M.Kreps, in the development of evolutional physiology; A.A.Ukhtomsky, in the physiology of labour. A.M.Ugolev discovered membrane digestion. The development of space physiology in the works of V.N.Chernigoncky and V.V.Parin prompted launching man into space.

An informational theory of emotions was developed. Important results in psychophysiological micromapping and physicochemical mechanisms of the nervous system were obtained.

The results of fundamental studies by A.N.Severtsov and I.I.Shmalgauzen in the field of evolutional morphology of animals, Ye.N.Pavlovsky and K.I.Skryabin in the files of parasitology and helminthology, M.S.Gilyarov in the field of biogeocenology are widely known.

In the fifties, sixties and seventies, our scientists successfully took part in the solution of problems of global importance. Among them are the creation of a vaccine against poliomyelitis enabling to practically eliminate this terrible children’s disease. Foundations for radiobiology were developed. Radiation disease and methods for its treatment were developed. With the most active participation of our country, the Earth’s population was vaccinated against smallpox. Successes in the field of space physiology are well-known.

Since the sixties, studies in the field of physicochemical biology and biotechnology are being developed intensely. V.A.Engelgardt, A.A.Baev and others did much to learn the structure and functions of biologically active compounds; Yu.A.Ovchinnikiv, in studies on mechanics of functioning of biological membranes; A.L.Kursanov, in studies on substance transport in plants.

In this period, research into a theoretical basis for prospecting new sources of mineral resources and their exploration were given large-scale development. In all the regions of the country, new institutes were created with in the Academy framework, the world’s largest scientific fleet set up, wide-scale expeditions embracing not only the USSR territory, but also the World Ocean were carried out. A new system in the history of the Earth was discovered, outstanding results in studying the depths structure were obtained. Geological cartography became the most important direction of work. The created geological and special maps became a scientific basis for new most important geological discoveries.

The works of I.M.Gubkin, A.A.Trofimuk and their disciples supplied theoretical foundations for the discovery of major oil and natural gas provinces. V.I.Vernadsky, D.I.Shcherbakov and their disciples did much to create the world’s largest resource basis for nuclear industry. A.N.Zavaritsky discovered giant natural resources of iron ores in the Urals and in region of the Kursk magnetic anomaly; A.E.Fersman, the unique resources of apatites in the Kola Peninsula; V.S.Sobolev, diamonds in Siberia; V.A.Obruchev and Yu.A.Bilibin, gold in the northeast of the country; S.S.Smirnov, non-ferrous metals and rare earths. All this became a weighty contribution to the power of our homeland, In the field of earth sciences, well-known scientific schools were formed: in tectonics (N.S.Shatsky, A.V.peyve, V.V.Belousov); in paleontology and stratigraphy (V.V.Menner, B.S.Sokolov); in lithology and geochemistry of sediment accumulation (N.M.Strakhov, V.B.Ronov); in geochemistry of isotopes and geochronology (v>I>Vernadsky, A.P.Vinogradov, A.I.Tugarinov); in physiochemical petrology (D.S.Korzhinsky); in crystallography and mineralogy (N.V.Belov, A.G.Betekhtin, F.V.Chukhrov); in geophysics (G.A.Gambutsev, M.A.Sadovsky).

In the postwar period, a powerful experimental base was set up in the Academy, the world’s largest scientific fleet created, wide-scale experimental studies of the World Ocean were performed. Results obtained with the help of space facilities were used more and more in the earth sciences. In solving theoretical problems, the Moon, Venus and data on other solar system planets’ were taken into account.

The role of the Academy is particularly important in the field of outer space research and exploration.

The world’s first Earth satellite launched in 1957 and the flight of Juri Gagarin became possible thanks to the work of scientists headed by S.P.Korolyov, M.V.Keldysh, V.P.Barmin, A.F.Bogomolov, V.P.Glushko, V.I.Kuznetsov, N.A.Pilyugin, and others. The Academy’s scientific achievements in deepening our ideas about the terrestrial space, atudying the effect of the processes in space on the ionosphere and Earth atmosphere, as well as in the development of space became well-known. With the help of space exploration vehicles and equipment, pioneer studies of the Moon and the nearest planets of the Solar system, Venus above all, were carried out.

In economics studies, it is necessary first of al to note the creation of methods for drawing up a balance sheet as a basis for national economy planning by K.V.Ostronityanov, N.A.Voznesensky and V.S.Nemchinov. In studies on the problems of philosophy, of special interest is the development of natural history in the works of B.M.Fedrov, M.E.Omelyanovsky, and their school. Among the works on theoretical problems of the state and law, of special importance was the development o a scientific basis for the country’s legislation and legal reform. In the field of sociological and politological studies, an accent was made on the development of methods to study social processes.

Fundamental studies on the history of Russia were performed by N.M.Druzhinin, B.D.Grekov,Ye.V.Tarle, L.V.Cgerepnin, and others. Ye.M.Zhukv and other scientists carried out basic studies on the history of foreign countries. The works of native orientologistts I.Yu.Krachkovsky, I.A.Orbeli, V.M.Alekseev, N.I.Konrad and their colleagues, works of Slavonic scholars and ethnographers are well-known. The discovey by A.V.Artsikhovsky and V.L.Yanin of birchs bark letters in Novgorod and other towns, investigations by B.B.Piotrovsky of the ancient settlements in Transcaucasia, by S.P.Tolsov in Khoresm, by A.P.Okladnikov in the south of Siberia received a world recognition. The academic scientists discovered many new pages in the history of World War II.

Significant studies in the field of literature were performed by philologists. A lot of work on the studies of the languages of the peoples f Russia and the rest of the world was done by V.V.Vinogradov, L.V.Shcherva, and others.

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As before, in the Soviet times the Academy of Sciences played a determining role in the making of education in the country, actively prompting the creation of a system of universities and higher educational establishments, in the making and development of a state system for training and certification of scientists and teaching personnel. Great attention was paid by the Academy to school education. Many good textbooks and manuals were created by our staff members or with their participation. Our Academy paid great importance to the dissemination of scientific knowledge, and played a key role in the work of the well-known (Znaniye – Knowledge) society. A major contribution was made by the Academy to the creation of a system of continuous education. It suffices to remember the note of Academicians A.M.Laypunov, A.A.Markov and V.A.Steklov on the university mathematics program; on the organization, as proposed by Academicians P.L.Kapitsa and S.A.Khristianovich, of the Moscow Physical Engineering Institute, whose basic departments were located in the Academy’s research institutes since the day of its inception; on establishing Novosibirsk University in the Academgorodok of the Siberian Department of the Academy; on the organization, on the initiative of Academicians A.D.Aleksandrov, M.A.Lavrentyev and A.N.Kholmogorov, of specialized physics, mathematics, chemistry and biology boarding schools under the aegis of major universities in Moscow, Leningrad, Novosibirsk and Kiev.

Unfortunately, I cannot go on speaking here on the role of academic science in education and enlightenment of people in the Soviet times. I will only say that the creation of one of the world’s best systems of school and higher education played an outstanding role in the achievements of our people. This system has the Academy o Sciences it self.

Let me inform the participants in the meeting that organized in cooperation with Moscow University, a meeting will be held on June 8 to discuss problems of interaction of the Academy with universities, higher educational establishments, and with the system o school education.

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It seems also important today to remember that in the years of calamities, world and civil wars, the academic scientists applied tremendous effort to preserve monuments of science and culture under the threat of destruction. Let me give you some examples. In October 1927, due to a war threat to Petrograd, the Academy of Sciences moved its manuscript collection, early-printed books, almost all the editions of the 18th century kept in its Library, collections of the Asian Museum and the Archives to Saratov. In the years of the civil war, the collections of the museums were not only preserved but substantially replenished. For example, the collection of V.G.Druzhinin’s manuscripts, A.S.Pushkin’s authentic manuscripts, and autographs o any writers from the Dashkova manuscripts collection were acquired. The activities of the Academy of Sciences museums and manuscripts collection workers, who preserved and enlarged the funds in the conditions of the blockade of Leningrad became an immortal deed.

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The role of the Academy of Sciences in strengthening the defense potential of the Country is great. As early as the last century, corresponding member of the Academy, Artillery General N.V.Maievsky, founder of the Russian scientific school of ballistics, designed a cannon with record characteristics. Acad. N.D.Zelinsky created a gas mask saving tens of thousands of soldiers in the years of World War I. Acad. V.N.Ipatyev set up production of explosives and powders in 1916-1920.

The name of Acad. A.N.Krylov is prominent both in the history of Russian Navy and the history of science. He was the first to perform the most complete study on the rolling and vibrations of ships, compiled the well-known “tables of unsinkability”, whose application strengthened the fighting capacity of the Navy. Under his supervision, the destroyer Novik, the world’s best at the time, was built.

The role of scientists was especially prominent in World War II. The studies of academic scientists in the prewar and war years enabled to design first-class airplanes and tanks, artillery and infantry weaponry, volley fire jet systems, and organize their mass production. Under the leadership of A.P.Aoeksandrow, protection of war ships against magnetic mines was provided. The works of M.V.Keldysh and others substantially improved the flight characteristics of war planes. The disciples and followers of N.E.Zhukovsky and S.A.Chaplygin form the S.V.Ilyushin, A.V.Yakovlev and A.N.Tupolev bureaus designed airplanes ensuring the superiority of our aviation in the air during the war, and then served as a basis for creating modern Air Forces of Russia. With the most active participation of the academic scientists, the industry was converted shortly into producing military equipment. Oil reserves in Povolzhye and Presuralye, most powerful gold and platinum reserves in Siberia were prospected and exploited. The works of N.N.Burdenko, A.D.Speransky and other medical scientists provided for successful treatment of the wounded in field conditions. The role of the Academy of Sciences in guaranteeing national security in the post war period is enormous. Creation of a nuclear missile shield, attainment of military and strategic parity and its successful maintenance for almost 50 years is due to native science Academicians I.V.Zeldovich, A.D.Sarharov, K.I.Shchelkin. Ye.Zababakhin, A.P.Aleksandrov and others provided for creation of nuclear arms. S.P.Korolyov, M.V.Keldysh, A.N.Tupolev, S.V.Ilyshin, A.S.Yakovlev, V.P.lushko, M.K.Yangel, V.N.Chelomei, V.P.Makeev, N.A.Semikhatov, V.P.Barmin, V.I.Kuznetsov, N.D.Kuznetsov, N.A.Pilyugin, A.D.Nadiradze, V.F.Utkin and others provided for the creation of jet aviation and missile technology.

In the early fifties, in response to the creation of nuclear-powered submarines abroad, a program for the construction of nuclear-powered submarines in the USSR was completed. The names of A.P.Aleksandrov, V.N.peregudov, N.A.Dollezhal, N.N.Isanin, V.V.Novozhilov, S.N.Kovalyov, I.D.Spassky and our other colleagues will forever remaining the history of creation of our submarine fleet.

Simultaneously with creation of nuclear arms, work on peaceful use of nuclear energy started. D.I.Blokhintsev, N.A.Dollezhal and A.I.Leipunsky became creartors of the first nuclear power station in 1954.

Thanks to the works of A.I.Berg and A.A.Raspletin, sophisticated radio electronic complexes and communications facilities were designed.

Appearance of lasers developed by the works of complexes and samples of various purpose weapons. Lasers became irreplaceable in detection, location and targeting of missiles.

Much earlier than in the U.S.A., an oxidizer for missile heavy fuels with record power characteristics was synthesized by academic scientists, and its industrial production organized.

Many of our defense complexes and technologies are no worse than their foreign analogs, while exceeding them in a number of characteristics. The Academy of Sciences has done a great service to the country in this. Many of our colleagues, who played an outstanding role in their creation, are in this hall now.

Academic scientists initiated major international agreements; the Treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water and the international program for peaceful use of nuclear energy.

Development of these ideas served as a basis for the wide international Purgwash movement of scientists for security and disarmament playing the most important role in the period of cold war. In many respects due to scientists uniting in their striving for stability and lasting peace in the period of the two systems’ confrontation, no nuclear conflict started. At the source of this movement were A.V.Topchiev, L.A.Artsimvich, M.D.Millionshchikov, M.A.Markov, and others.

We have to recall with gratitude the names of Presidents of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet times; A.P.Karpinsky (1917-1936), V.L.Komarov (1936-1945), S.I.Vavilov (1945-1951), A.N.Nesmeyanov (1951-1961), M.V.Keldysh (1961-1975), A.P.Aleksansrov (1975-1986) and G.I.Marchuk (1986-1991).

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A new stage in the life of the Academy of Sciences began since the early nineties. It was a difficult, complicated and dramatic period. The collapse of the USSR and the habitual state and social institutions, a deep economic crisis, a legal vacuum are far from all the problems facing the Academy of Sciences. In 1991, the situation grew worse with a wide scale campaign of discreditation of the Academy of Sciences in the eyes of society, attempts to separate the Academic community from institutes, and set up a faceless association of institutes, to dissolve the Academy of Sciences by analogy with liquidation of all-Union structures under a pretext of fighting totalitarianism. This was frequently based on an understanding of democracy as all-out permissiveness with no serious responsibility. But the Academy has withstood. A decisive role was played by the decree of President of the RF of November 21, 1991. On the Reconstruction of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Despite the hardest political, economic, social and psychological problems in the country, the Academy of Sciences has preserved its unity. It remains the main scientific center of Russia, and one of the leading scientific centers of world science. The major scientific achievements of the nineties are an obirous proof of it. Let me mention some of them.

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The fundamental results were obtained by mathematicians in classical and new branches arising lately. A number of problems posed many decades ago in the number theory, algebra, geometry, topology, probability theory, mathematical physics, differential equations, and other fields have been solved. Studies on mathematical modeling and image recognition led to creation of effective methods of solution of important theoretical and applied problems. Multiprocessor computer systems of the domestic supercomputer line have been created. A number of complicated applied problems have been solved.

Major discoveries extending our ideas of the Universe and, in particular, understanding of the processes of the galaxy formation at the early stages of the Universe evolution were made in astrophysics. Thus, by means of a 6-meter optical telescope at the Academy Special Astrophysical Laboratory, images of the remotest galaxies with red shifts up to 7 were received. At the radio telescope of the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences at Pushchino, radiation of a pulsar known as the brightest source of X-ray radiation was discovered, and at the 6-meter optical telescope, optical pulsations of this object.

Russian scientists continue to occupy leading positions in a number of branches of modern physics. This is the physics of quantum liquids and crystals, semiconductor heterostructures, laser physics, the physics of extreme conditions, high-precision relativist electronics, the physics of colliding beams, and a number of other directions.

Major scientific plants have been launched for the last years. Russia’s unique impulse neutron complex on the proton beam of a high-precision accelerator has been started. The world’s only deep-water neutrino telescope on Lake Baikal was created. Literally the other day, the Globus tokomak plant was started.

Rare processes of decay of short-living k-mesons were studied on our plants. The world’s best limit for the neutrino mass in the state of rest was obtained.

Major achievements marked the studies in the field of solid-state physics, plasma physics, optics and radiophysics.

Research into the physics of solid-state low-temperature nanostructures developed successfully.

Methods for receiving two-dimensional, one-dimensional (points) semiconductor heterostructures were worked out, and absolutely new devices such as injection lasers, transistors, etc., were created. They will become a basis for the elementary base of electronics in the 21th century.

Major achievements were made in relativist high-precision electronics.

Important research and developments with applications to industry, medicine, ecology and other fields have been carried out. A laser femtosecond microscope with record space resolution close to the fundamental theoretical limit has been created. A method of coherent optical tomography to construct object images hidden in strongly diffusing media has been worked out; optical homographs for nondamaging diagnostics of biotissues to a depth of 2 mm have been created. Unique plasmotrons have been designed.

Major achievements were made in mechanics, solution of problems in machine-building, control, informatics and solution of physical engineering problems.

An effective method for opening the oil-bearing stratum and exploitation of oil wells with a substantial increase in their debit was offered. A new generation of walking robots capable of moving across surfaces with an arbitrary orientation in space was created. A method for synthesis of control of manipulation robots in case the information about the state is of qualitative character (of the “faster-slower” type) was designed. A system was created, providing for automatic extraction of significant information from textual messages. A number of important studies on the durability, resource and endurance of powerful turbines, and other power equipment were performed. A system of plasma destruction and neutralization of complex chloro-fluorocarbons causing destruction of stratospheric ozone was worked out for the first time.

The phenomenon of partial gas collapse in two-dimensional nonstationary nonautomodel compression of gas prisms was discovered. Construction of the general theory of wave solid-state gyroscope was completed. A number of difficult problems of control of complex systems were solved.

Works on ballistico-navigational support of flights on the MIR long-life orbital station and the international ALFA station were performed, including those necessary to provide for the transport ships PROGRESS M-37, 38,39, 40 and the manned SOYUZ TM 27,28 ships. Parameters of maneuvering necessary for approaching and docking the transport ships with the MIR station, the undocking and descent of the ships to a prescribed region were determined.

A new-generation mesoscale stochastic trajectory model for atmospheric displacement used as a basis for a Nostradamus computer system capable of predicting the radiation situation in emergencies at nuclear power stations was devised. A promising method for measuring the adhesion stability of the coating of gas turbine blades was created.

Major achievements were obtained in chemistry. A catalytic fixation of molecular nitrogen in soft conditions was discovered. An impact of weak magnetic fields on chemical reactions was discovered, and a new branch, so-called spin chemistry, was created.

Important results were obtained on catalytic transformations of hydrocarbons, photocatalysis, directed synthesis of physiologically active substances and high-molecular compounds, tunnel effects in chemical processes, kinetics of superfast reactions in nano- and femtosecond bandwidths, production and research of giant palladium clusters.

A family of chemical sensors of different use was created, new methods for monitoring the environment worked out, scientific foundations for ecologically safe chemical technologies were worked out.

Unique constructional and functional materials for new technologies were designed. Totally new methods for self-extending high-temperature synthesis of various substances were created.

A new superstrong steel was developed, having no worlds analogs. Products are made from it by rolling and other methods for processing under pressure, and not by moulding.

Life sciences are one of the priorities of the nearest decades, and, possibly, of the whole 21st century. Our scientists determined the spatial structure of a number of proteins and peptides. Molecular mechanics of ion transport through biological membranes was studied. Informosomes playing an important role in transferring genetic information in the processes of biosynthesis are discovered. The structure and mechanisms of the ribosome functions playing a special role in protein synthesis were studied. The technique of noncellular proteing synthesis on ribosomes has been worked out. Problems of biochemistry and biotechnology, cellular biology, biophysics and bioenergetics are solved successfully. Original research into the genetic engineering of protein molecules with prescribed properties is performerd. Work on the studies of the human genome is in progress.

Together with colleagues from the Argonne National Laboratory, biochips were created, serving as express diagnosticums for identification of individual DNA molecules enabling with high precision to exhibit genetic defects in their structures. Unknown regulator molecules called mielopeptides were discovered, and their structure decoded. Together with the Immunology Institute under the Russian Health Ministry, new-generation vaccines were worked out; in particular, against flu and hepatitis. Original cancer- and TB-fighting medicines were created. New promising biologically active substances and medicines were produced from sea and ground plants, and animals.

New methods for ecological norming, based on analysis of the reaction of natural ecosystems against a toxic load, were worked out.

In spite of dramatic cuts on expedition research, new and previously formed directions in the earth sciences advances substantially. New outstanding geodetic and seismological data on geodynamical processes were obtained. An effective system for monitoring seismic events and control of nuclear tests, incorporated into the global system, was created. A new map of possible seismic threat on the CIS territory, which is part of the World Map worked out under the aegis of UNESCO, was published. We retained a leading position in the field of geochemistry of isotopes, ore-formation theory and dynamics of climatic processes.

Prompted by the academic scientists’ prognosis, the world’s oldest, Precambrian, oil was discovered in Eastern Siberia. A high estimate of oil content of the shelf of Arctic seas was confirmed, and unique reserves of hydrocarbons in the Far North and Western Siberia discovered. Discoveries of the most important industrially feasible reserves were predicted scientifically.

Models for redionuclides migration in the atmosphere, ocean, continental landscapes and underground hydrosphere were worked out.

Unique atlases of the Nature and Resources of the Earth, Snow and Ice Resources of the World, and Radioactive Pollution Resulted from Chernobyl Accident were created.

Of fundamental importance are the discoveries related to the dynamics of the World Ocean waters, serving as a basis for mathematical models of the general circulation of waters, and interaction of the ocean with the atmosphere. Space studies on the color of the surface layer of the ocean for the first time enabled to estimate the global biological productivity of the ocean waters.

Progress in the field of social sciences is substantial.

In the past decade Russian historians introduced qualitative changes in the methods of historical research and substantially extended its sources.

A great number of documents became available, enabling to look at the known events and processes from a new angle, advancing totally different ideas and appraisals in the understanding of social transformations and modernization of social processes, in the analysis of international relations, and in the systems of social and state management.

A new treatment of the role of man and spiritual origins in history should be regarded as one of the most important achievements. The theory and comparative history of different types of civilizations, revealing the role and place of Russia in the world history was worked out intensely. Publishing fundamental generalizing works on the history of Russia and other countries, a series of documental publications of qualitatively new type, and monograph studies crowned tremendous research work. Important results in the studies of World Wars I and II wee obtained. A number of discoveries of the world level were made by native archeologists in this country and abroad. Historical education was renewed qualitatively on the basis of the newest achievements of historians, and new basic textbooks for schools and higher educational establishments were written. Remarkable encyclopedias were published.

In the field of philosophy, global social and scientific and technological processes of modern times were comprehended. Outstanding works were published.

The sociologists received impressive all-Russia data on the state and mechanism of functioning of pubic opinion during perestroika. Lawers determined basic tendencies in the development of modern law and the state in Russia and abroad. Dominating tendencies in the sphere of relations between the national minorities and the making of public self-government in Russia were revealed. Our scientists studied problems in the psychic development and psychodiagnostics of man in a changing world.

Studies in the sphere of economics enabled to work out a conception and strategy o financial and monetary-credit policy for the purpose of recovery of the Russian economy. Modern decision-making technologies were offered, providing for a progressive structural transformation and economic growth. A concept for the state strategy in the social sphere in Russia was offered.

The Academy of Sciences worked out a concept of the modern stage in international relations as a forming multipole global system of correlations, reflecting the variety and integrity of the interests of a citizen, society, state and world community. With the account of confrontation and conflicts going on in the world, problems of national security in Russia were considered. Theoretical and practical problems of the economic security of Russia, its geoeconomic interests and relation with the “far” and “near” abroad were studied.

A long-term prognosis for development of the world economy and policies up to 2015 enabled to find the most probable variants of the making of new systems of international political and economic relations between the main countries, including Russia. Among practical results we must point out the elaboration of an expert classification of the priority interests of Russia, goals of the national and state policy, mechanisms and methods for their attainment.

The traditions of native philology developed successfully in recent years.

Literary critics paid special attention to Pushkin studies. The Pushkin House completed an 8-volume edition of A.S.Pushkin. Work Notebooks.

Studies on Old Russian literature continue. The publication of the multivolume series Monuments of Literature of Old Rus has been completed. A significant event in literary studies was the completion of the fundamental History of World Literature in 8 volumes.

Continuing the traditions of Acad. N/I/Tolstoy, folklore specialists actively work on collecting, studying and publishing works of spoken folk art. In recent years, a number of dictionaries and grammar books were prepared.

The Russian Language Federal Program was worked out, whose realization will prompt strengthening the state support for the Russian language.

The history of Russian emigrationis studied actively. An important place is occupied by a complex interdisciplinary program for studying Russian culture in the world context.

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In the nineties, the Academy of Sciences preserved and developed the traditional directions of activities, which, of course, started acquiring new forms and shads, in accordance with new realities.

With an incredible effort, we preserved the system of academic book publishing. We publish about 200 scientific and 7 popular science journals, 150 of which are translated into English. We publish all major remarkable traditional series. Our staff members have written wonderful books, many of which are of great cultural value.

International ties are being developed. Today, the Academy of Sciences has about 100 bilateral cooperation agreements, takes part in realization of more than 40 intergovernmental agreements, and is a member of 236 international organizations, representing Russia in them.

We are developing and strengthening cooperation with the Academies of Sciences of the CIS countries, including that within the framework of the International Association of Academies. We actively cooperate with the National Academies of Sciences and scientific centers of France, the UK, Germany, U.S.A., India, Italy, Poland, Finland, Sweden, Israel, China, Japan, and other countries. The Academy of Sciences actively works on a mutually beneficial cooperation with foreign companies interested in joint applied studies.

Dozens o international scientific conferences were held in Russian for the last few years. Our workers also took an active part in other international conferences.

Following the tradition, the Academy of Sciences attaches a great importance to a cardinal rapprochement between science and education. Dozens of lyceums and colleges were set up. Scientific educational centers, academic universities and faculties were created. About 700 members of the Academy of Sciences and thousands of its workers are involved in education. The academic scientists wrote textbooks and manuals for schools and higher educational establishments. The closest interaction between our institutes and the country’s higher educational establishments is a strategic line of the academic activities. I have already said that they will be discussed in detail in June 8.

In recent years, the Academy of Sciences substantially extended its interaction with state structures on a professional basis.

I could mention just a few of the key directions of the academic activities in recent years.

It is not customary to talk about troubles and problems on such occasions as today. We have a lot of them, and they are well-known. Today, in the 275th year of the Academy, we can say that, with common efforts, we have preserved the Academy of Sciences, the invaluable asset of Russia. It is alive and developing. Its strength has been tested by time, due to the deep historical traditions cementing the Academy, and thanks to the selfless work of many generations of our workers.

* * *

In 275 years, Russia has managed to cultivate a unique tree of academic science bearing remarkable fruit for its people and works civilization, changing the image of this country. Powerful branches of the whole of Russian science and education, and many impressive achievements of our people have started out from this tree. Not every state is capable of doing this!

Storms and hurricanes striking our home-land sometimes break the branches of the tree of science, and inflict deep wounds. But the Academy and academic science will support Russia in all its basic deeds.

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In conclusion, let me draw the attention of the participants in our jubilee meeting, especially the Prime Minister and many other state figures present, to the following transparency. It represents the Academic Stamp of 1735, designed by an outstanding mathematician, Academy’s Conference-Secretary Christian Goldbach.

 

Russian Academy of Sciences President

academician

Yu.S.Osipov